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Reverse osmosis is the finest water filtration method known. This process will allow the removal of particles as small as ions from a solution. It is used to purify water and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve the color, taste or properties of the fluid. R.O. uses a membrane that is semi-permeable, allowing the fluid that is being purified to pass through it, while rejecting other ions and contaminants from passing. This technology uses a process known as crossflow to allow the r.o. membrane to continually clean itself. This is the reason of why an r.o. element can last many years before clogging or need replacement. This water purification process requires a driving force to push the fluid through the membrane, and the most common force is household water pressure or pressure from a booster pump. The higher the pressure, the larger the driving force and efficiency.

Bottled water tested with contaminants Unsafe tap water for Californians Studies find 40 chemicals & 20 pesticides in water— Yet officials claim no health threat! Filters best way to clean tap water Novel Forward Osmosis Desalination Water sources of Dasani-pure? Question the safety of bottled water

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Global Movement to Ban Single-Use Plastic Bags
Gains Momentum

Part 1
Plastic Bags Contribute to Air, Soil, Water, and Ocean Pollution; Clog Up Landfills; Litter Streams and Streets; Choke Drains and Intensify Flooding; and Kill Wildlife.

Plastic bags are jokingly called "national flag" by the Irish and "national flower" by South Africans. They are called "white pollution" by the Chinese. Goats and cows in Tanzania choked on them while foraging for food and then died a slowly and agonizingly death. The United Nations Environment Programme estimated that there are 46,000 pieces of plastic litter floating in every square mile of ocean. Plastic bags are found in every single corner of the planet and they cause immense pollution of soil, air, and water. All the plastic bags ever manufactured are still around in the environment—just in smaller and smaller pieces—because plastics do not biodegrade and they turn toxic when incinerated, and the plastic bags are extremely difficult to recycle.

Some statistics on plastic bags production and use worldwide, as follows:

• Wildly varied statistics have been published: Worldwide 13 billion plastic bags are given out to shoppers each year (about 220 per person) and on average each bag is used for 12 minutes before being discarded (CNN, July 19, 2008). Another figure has that anywhere from 500 billion to 5 trillion units a year are produced (CNN, April 7, 2008). Environment California estimate that plastic bags kill up to 1 million sea creatures annually, and the British Antarctic Survey have found bags floating far north of the Arctic Circle, and as far south as the Falkland Islands.
• In 2002, factories around the world churned out some 4 trillion to 5 trillion of plastic bags, ranging from large trash bags to thick shopping totes to flimsy grocery sacks (Worldwatch Institute).
• Americans throw away about 100 billion polyethylene plastic bags annually; only 0.6% of plastic bags are recycled (The Worldwatch Institute) but another figure cited said that about 2% are recycled (Salon). This number of 100 billion is equivalent to throwing away nearly 12 million barrels of oil annually (Salon, August 10, 2007).
• Some wildly different figures have been cited: one says that China uses about 3 billion bags per day (CNN, January 9, 2008), another says that China discards 1.6 billion plastic bags each year (CNN, July 19, 2008)—consuming 37 million barrels of oil yearly to produce these bags. These figures are contradictory, and so it appears that the 3 billion bags per day sounds more logical.
• In the United Kingdom, on average, British consumers use 290 plastic bags a year, nearly one a day. The nine major supermarket chains in the U.K. distribute more than 17.5 billion bags annually (The Independent, September 4, 2007). Others have estimated that in Britain, more 13 billion bags are issued every year to shoppers—roughly 220 per person every year (The Telegraph, September 28, 2007).
• Only 1% of plastic bags are recycled worldwide—about 0.6% to 2% in the United States—and the rest, when discarded, can persist for centuries. Plastic bags cannot be "recycled" (to make other plastic bags) but they can be "downcycled" to make composite decking out of the bags and recycled wood: It takes about 2,250 plastic bags to make a single 16-foot-long, 2-inch-by-6-inch plank, which cannot be further recycled.
• North America and Western Europe account for nearly 80% of plastic bag use—though the bags are increasingly common in developing countries as well (The Worldwatch Institute).
• In Israel, studies have shown that Israelis use 2 billion of the thin plastic bags a year and that the average life span of each bag is merely 20 minutes, or roughly the time it takes to transport groceries from store to home (Jerusalem Post, July 7, 2008).
• It takes 14 million trees to produce the 10 billion paper grocery bags used every year by Americans, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council.
• Bits of plastic bags have been found in the nests of albatrosses in the remote Midway Islands because floating plastic bags can look all too much like tasty jellyfish to hungry marine critters. According to the Blue Ocean Society for Marine Conservation, more than a million birds and 100,000 marine mammals and sea turtles die every year from eating or getting entangled in plastic. The marine conservation group estimates that 50% of all marine litter is some form of plastic (Salon, August 10, 2007).

Photographs: Six square meters of plastic bags and plastic debris were found tightly packed in the stomach of a beached Bryde's whale in August 2000. Birds and marine animals often mistake plastic bags and floating plastic trash for food. (Source: Planet Ark Campaigns)

Currently, plastic bags are taxed in Italy and Belgium. Grocery shoppers must pay for the bags in Switzerland, Germany, and Holland. Worldwide there are efforts to combat the scourge of plastic-bag litter and pollution.

Some individual efforts by retailers in the United States:

• In January 2008, Whole Foods announced plans to stop offering disposable, plastic grocery bags in all 270 stores in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom by Earth Day—April 22. This move means that approximately 100 million plastic bags will be kept out of the environment between that date and the end of 2008, the company says. Whole Foods will offer free paper bags in four sizes made from 100% recycled paper, reusable bags 80% made from recycled plastic bottles for 99 cents and canvas bags selling for $6.99 to $35. It encourages consumers to bring their own bags by taking 5 cents to 10 cents off the bill for each (USA Today, January 22, 2008).

• In March 2007, the furniture superstore IKEA began charging U.S.$0.05 cents a bag. A year later, use of plastic bags at its stores dropped by 92% (Los Angeles Times, July 22, 2008).

California Cities Imposed Bans on Plastic Bags

The cities of San Francisco, Oakland, Malibu, and Manhattan Beach have banned single-use plastic bags as of July 2008. They are joined by Los Angeles in the second half of 2008, and perhaps by Encinitas (northern San Diego County) later in 2008.

Los Angeles City to Ban Plastic Bags by July 2010
The Los Angeles City Council voted and passed a ban on plastic bags on July 22, 2008. Plastic bags will be banned in the city's supermarkets and stores by July 2010, but only if the state fails to levy a U.S.$0.25 fee on every shopper who requests a bag. City Council members said that they hope this impending ban would motivate consumers to start carrying their reusable cloth or canvas bags, thus reducing the amount of plastic that washes into the city's storm drains and the Pacific Ocean (Los Angeles Times, July 22, 2008).

City officials estimate that Los Angeles consumers use 2.3 billion plastic bags each year, but only an estimated 5% of plastic bags are recycled statewide, according to Los Angeles's Bureau of Sanitation and reported in the Los Angeles Times. Before the plastic-bag ban, San Franciscans used 180 million bags a year; now, they used virtually nothing and shoppers learned to use their own cloth and durable shopping bags.

San Diego Considers a Plastic-Bag Ban in 2008
Encinitas in northern San Diego County is considering a plastic-bag ban after the San Diego chapter of Surfrider Foundation gave the council a bag-ban petition signed by 1,500 people. Many environmentalists knew that the bags often end up as litter in the waves and because they look like jellyfish, they are mistakenly eaten by sea turtles and other marine life. The bags choke the animals or block their intestines, leading to agonizing deaths. About 6.4 million tons of litter enter the world's oceans each year, 90% of it plastic (San Diego Union-Tribune, July 10, 2008).

Elsewhere in the United States, Ann Arbor, Michigan, is considering a ban of noncompostable plastic bags. Under a new draft ordinance, businesses that have annual gross sales exceeding U.S.$1 million would no longer be able to pack merchandise in noncompostable plastic shopping bags. The ordinance would apply only to bags provided at the point of sale, and exclude plastic bags in grocery store produce areas for fruits and vegetables (Ann Arbor News, July 22, 2008).

Countries Worldwide Impose Bans on Plastic Bags

Australia's State of South Australia Promises a Plastic-Bag Ban by 2008
The state of South Australia (which includes the city of Adelaide) has promised a ban on free single-use bags by the end of 2008 no matter what. South Australia's premier, Mike Rann, listed familiar reasons for the ban: The bags contribute to greenhouse gases, clog up landfills, litter streets and streams, and kill wildlife (National Geographic News, April 4, 2008).

Bangladesh Banned Plastic Bags in 2002: Preventing Flooding
Bangladesh banned plastic bags in 2004 when it realized that plastic bags blocked drains and led to flooding. Bangladesh is a low-lying country and more prone to flooding. Since the ban, people have been using jute and cloth bags for shopping (BBC, January 4, 2002).

Ireland Banned Plastic Bags in 2002
In March 2002, the Irish government began charging a bag tax of 15 Eurocents per bag. As a result, plastic bag consumption plummeted by 95%. It is estimated that about one billion bags are handed out each year, and the tax could raise 180 million euro (BBC, March 4, 2002). This ban was welcomed by the Irish. The largest supermarket, Tesco Ireland, currently handed out 220 million bags to customers in Ireland each year before 2002; it estimated that the number would be reduced by at least 40% in the first year.

Just five months after this plastic-bag taxation, the Republic of Ireland cut its bag use by more than 90% and raised 3.5 millions of euros in revenue for environmental projects, according to the government (BBC, August 20, 2002). The government said that more than 1 billion plastic bags have been taken out of circulation since March 2002.

The environment ministry estimated that 1.2 billion free plastic bags were being handed out annually in Ireland, leaving windblown bags littering Irish streets and the countryside. The government said that in the three months after the tax was introduced, shops handed out just about 23 million plastic bags—about 277 million fewer than normal. If the current trend continued, the tax would bring in 10 million euros in a full year (BBC, August 20, 2002).

According to an analyst with Worldwatch Institute, more effective measures on limiting plastic bags litter problems are taxation schemes—such as Ireland's so-called PlasTax. There carriers are now taxed at 22 euro cents (34 U.S. cents) each, and bag usage has dropped 95%. In fact, Ireland recently raised the tax to combat resurging plastic bag use and it appears to be working (National Geographic News, April 4, 2008).

But other people have disputed the effectiveness of the Irish government's tax on plastic bags: It was found through a recent survey by government-funded Waste Resources Action Programme (WRAP) that Ireland's levy on plastic bags 'led to five times more plastic being used.' But this claim was made by the plastics bag industry, so it cannot be verified (The Telegraph, September 28, 2007).

Israel Tries to Ban Thin Plastic Bags
Israelis use about 2 billion plastic bags each year, with the average lifespan of a bag no more than 20 minutes. In July 2008, the Israeli government passed the first reading of a bill to mandate that plastic bags cannot be offered for free in stores so as to reduce their profligate use. The other part of the bill mandates the stores to offer multiple-use alternative bags, and would develop a standard for biodegradable ones. Fines for giving away free plastic bags would stand at NIS 27,000, while fines for selling multiple-use bags which failed to meet the standard would be NIS 67,000 (Jerusalem Post, July 7, 2008).

China Banned Plastic Bags in June 2008 and Expects to Save 37 Million Barrels of Oil Annually
China uses about 3 billion plastic bags each day, consuming 37 million barrels of oil annually to produce these plastic bags. The Chinese government has banned plastic bags starting June 1, 2008. The ban includes the production, sale, and use of ultra-thin plastic bags (those less than 0.025 millimeters, or 0.00098 inches, thick). The plastic bags clutter the landfills, cause severe air and water pollution, and are extremely unsightly when littered all over the countryside.

In May 2008, the Chinese government announced a ban on production and distribution of the thinnest plastic bags in a bid to curb a significant source of litter, the ubiquitous "white pollution" (bai se wu ran) that is taking over the countryside. The bags are also banned from all forms of public transportation and "scenic locations." According to China Trade News, the ban may save as much as 37 million barrels of oil currently consumed to manufacture the plastic totes. As a result of the ban, China's largest producer of such thin plastic bags, Huaqiang, has shut down its operations (Scientific American, May 23, 2008).

Interviewed by a reporter, a retired Communist Party cadre Liu Zhidong said, "Too many plastic bags is a great waste of natural resources. When burnt, they produce poisoning smoke, and if buried underneath the ground they need more than 300 years to be degraded." (Scientific American, May 23, 2008) Actually, they take more than a thousand years to "degrade" and they never actually biodegrade but simply fragment into ever smaller pieces of plastic film.

The government and environmental advocates are encouraging people to use reusable cloth bags, durable plastic bags, or baskets.

Bombay (Mumbai), India, Banned Plastic Bags in 2000
Mumbai/Bombay's city council banned the plastic bags in 2000 in an effort to stop them littering the streets and clogging up the city's sewerage system (BBC News, May 14, 2001). The city officials said that once the plastic bags are littered in the drain, they "completely clog the drains, which contributes to flooding intensity." The city was trying to avoid a repetition of serious flooding during year 2000's monsoon season.

South Africa Banned Plastic Bags in 2002
In January 2002, South Africa announced that it required plastic-bag manufacturers to make bags more durable and more expensive to discourage their disposal; this move prompted a 90% reduction in use.

Once jokingly called the "national flower" because they are littered everywhere, thin plastic bags have been banned in South Africa; thicker ones are taxed. Similar measures exist in Eritrea, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda (National Geographic News, April 4, 2008).

Tanzania Banned Plastic Bags in 2006, but No Enforcement of the Ban
In 2006, the Tanzanian government banned thin, disposable plastic bags (between 30 and 65 microns) outright, but because there was no enforcement of the ban, the effort failed. Plastic bags still littered the streets, clogged drains, choked marine animals (e.g., turtles, dolphins, whales), and choked land animals (e.g., goats and cows) to death.

On paper, Tanzania's plastic-bag law is among the stiffest: Anyone caught importing or selling a bag thinner than 30 microns could face up to six months in jail and a fine of 1.5 million local currency. But because the government did not encourage alternative bags—such as paper, sisal, cotton bags—people continued to use the banned plastic bags (Sunday Observer, July 20, 2008).

Delta/Surrey (U.K.) to Ban Plastic Bags in 2009
Beginning January 1, 2009, Delta residents won't be allowed to use plastic bags to pack lawn clippings, leaves and tree trimmings for collection. The City Council has unanimously approved an engineering department recommendation that will require the use of reusable rigid containers, biodegradable kraft paper bags, or tied bundles.

Elsewhere in United Kingdom, a survey by London councils revealed that over 90% of Londoners wanted a plastic-bag ban, or would support a 30 Eurocents charge on every bag (CNN, July 19, 2008).

Photographs: Wild birds often mistake plastic debris and plastic bags for food. They die an agonizing death when their stomachs are stuffed with plastics. Bits of plastic bags have been found in the nests of albatrosses in the remote Midway Islands because floating plastic bags can look all too much like tasty jellyfish. An estimated 1 million birds die each year due to ingesting plastic bags.

Chemicals and Plastics Manufacturers Fight Back

Interviewed by a reporter from National Geographics, the senior director of packaging at the American Chemistry Council and Progressive Bag Affiliates in Arlington, Virginia (U.S.A.), Keith Christman said bans and taxes on plastic bags "are not the right approach." He said that such measures force retailers to switch to paper bags, which consume more energy and release more greenhouse gases to produce and supply than do plastic bags. In addition, Mr. Christman said, 92% of consumers reuse their plastic bags to line garbage bins and pickup after pets, among other things—hence, without free bags from the grocery store, consumers are forced to buy them. He said that Ireland's PlasTax has led to a 400% increase in plastic bag purchases (National Geographic News, April 4, 2008).

In 2006, according to the American Chemistry Council, 812 million pounds (368 million kilograms) of plastic bags were recycled, up 24% from 2005. The plastic bags are recycled into new bags and used for fencing and decking material (National Geographic News, April 4, 2008). Plastics manufacturers have aggressively fought bans in London, Baltimore, and elsewhere in the world; they wanted "in-store recycling" instead of outright bans or taxes.

Not All Plastic-Bag Bans Are Successful

Edmonton, Canada, Unsuccessful in Banning Plastic Bags
In Edmonton, Canada, city councilors want to talk to store owners about a voluntary charge to reduce the use of shopping bags, but backed away in June 2008 from introducing a tax or an outright ban. Two small Canadian towns—Leaf Rapids (Man.) and Huntingdon (Que.)—now regulate plastic shopping bags. Edmonton currently recycles more than 200 tons of plastic bags a year (Edmonton Journal, June 23, 2008).

The city's waste management director said that although several countries—including Ireland, Bangladesh, South Africa, and Taiwan—have taken steps against plastic bags, these moves don't seem to have cut plastic consumption. He said that people in these areas end up buying bags to hold garbage or other products instead of using what they received from stores, adding surveys indicate Canadian consumers reuse 60% to 80% of their shopping bags at least once (Edmonton Journal, June 23, 2008). This is the argument generally put forth by the plastics and chemical industry.

What You Can Do to Reduce Plastic-Bag Usage and Pollution

Single-use, disposable plastic bags are extremely wasteful: they are made with petroleum and are very costly to dispose. Plastic bags contribute to air, soil, water, and ocean pollution; clog up landfills; litter streams and streets; choke drains and intensify flooding; and kill untold number of marine and land wildlife.

We encourage everyone to become responsible, ethical, conscientious citizens of the Earth. There are many things we can do to reduce our pollution and our carbon footprint, as follows:

• Do not take a plastic bag if your purchase is small and easy to carry.
• Try to go at least one week without accumulating any new plastic shopping bags at home. According to the Worldwatch Institute, if every shopper took just one less bag each month, this could eliminate the waste of hundreds of millions of bags each year.
• Keep canvas bags in your home, office, and car so you always have them available when you go to the supermarket or other stores.
• Ask markets and stores to stop giving away plastic bags for free, or ask them to offer a discount if customers bring their own bags.
• Encourage your local politicians to introduce legislation taxing or banning plastic bags.

References (Ordered by Date)

BBC News. May 14, 2001. "Bombay gets tough on plastic bags," by Lovejit Dhaliwal.

BBC News. January 4, 2002. "Bangladeshi jute bag demand soars."

BBC News. March 2, 2002. "Plastic bag levy on way" (in Northern Ireland).

BBC News. March 4, 2002. "NI shoppers 'would bring their own bags': In Belfast shoppers gave their mixed views on whether a similar scheme should be brought into Northern Ireland," by Jane Bardon.

BBC News. March 4, 2002. "Shoppers face plastic bag tax" (in Northern Ireland).

BBC News. August 20, 2002. "Irish bag tax hailed success."

Salon Magazine (salon.com). August 10, 2007. "Plastic bags are killing us," by Katharine Mieszkowski.

The Independent (U.K.). September 4, 2007. By Amol Rajan.

The Telegraph (U.K.). September 28, 2007. "Plastic bag tax 'would increase waste'," by Charles Clover, Environment Editor.

The Associated Press. January 9, 2008. "China bans free plastic shopping bags," published in the International Herald Tribune.

CNN. January 9, 2008. "China bans free plastic bags."

USA Today. January 22, 2008. "Whole Foods sacks plastic bags," by Bruce Horovitz.

National Geographic News. April 4, 2008. "Plastic-Bag Bans Gaining Momentum Around the World," by John Roach.

CNN. April 7, 2008. "All about: Recycling plastics," by Rachel Oliver for CNN.

Scientific America. May 23, 2008. "China Sacks Plastic Bags: Ban could save 37 million barrels of oil and alleviate 'white pollution'", by David Biello.

Edmonton Journal (Canada). June 23, 2008. "Council backs away from plastic-bag ban," by Gordon Kent.

Jerusalem Post. July 7, 2008. "Bill would ban free plastic shopping bags," by Ehud Zion Waldoks.

San Diego Union-Tribune (U.S.A.). July 10, 2008. "City Council considers ban on plastic bags," by Terry Rodgers.

CNN. July 19, 2008. "Fighting the tide of plastic bags in a world awash with waste," by Matt Ford.

Sunday Observer (Tanzania). July 20, 2008. "Plastic bags still posing problem," by Sunday Observer's editor.

Los Angeles Times. July 22, 2008. "L.A. City Council votes for plastic bag ban: The council plans to ban the carryout bags in the city's stores by 2010, unless the state imposes a 25-cent fee on those who request them," by David Zahniser.

Los Angeles Times. July 22, 2008. "Sack the plastic bags: A City Council proposal to ban the shopping bags makes environmental and political sense," by editorial staff.

The Daily Green (thedailygreen.com). July 22, 2008. "Los Angeles Weighs Plastic Bag Ban. Environmental Debate Over Plastic Bags Continues Across California."

The Ann Arbor News (Michigan, U.S.A.). July 22, 2008. "Plastic bag ban pushed: Noncompostable shopping bags would not be allowed," by Judy McGovern.

Surrey North Delta Leader (U.K.). July 22, 2008. "Delta bans plastic for yard waste," by Dan Ferguson.

The Worldwatch Institute. "A Necessary Eyesore?"

Let's Keep Our Environment Clean!